Chinese Red Army
The Chinese Red Army, formally the Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army or just the Red Army, was the military wing of the Chinese Communist Party from 1928 to 1937. It was formed when Communist elements of the National Revolutionary Army splintered and mutinied in the Nanchang Uprising. The Red Army was reincorporated into the NRA as part of the Second United Front with the Kuomintang to fight against the Empire of Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945. In the later stages of the Chinese Civil War the Red Army splintered off once again and was renamed the People's Liberation Army.
History
Formation (late 1920s)
In the summer of 1927, the CCP took over the two divisions of the Chinese Nationalist Party forces and led a military mutiny. Nationalist forces General He Long commanded the 20th Corps to join them. They had a total of 20,000 soldiers and planned to occupy Guangzhou. However, they were defeated before they reached Guangzhou with only a few thousand men surviving the battle. Zhu De led a column of survivors to Hunan to fight in the Autumn Harvest Uprising where they were defeated again. After the revolt, Mao Zedong organized the rebels into a guerilla army, establishing a revolutionary base area in the Jinggang Mountains. The two armies joined forces in the following year. In the winter of 1927, the CCP planned to conquer Guangzhou; however, the uprising failed and thousands of insurgents were killed by the Nationalist forces of General Li Jishen.Between 1928 and 1929, the CCP launched multiple uprisings. Mao Zedong and Zhu De led the organization and training of the Communist military, including the Fourth Army, which totaled about 6,000 men in the summer of 1928 and fought in Jiangxi. Also in the summer of 1928, Peng Dehuai, the Nationalist forces Regimental Commander, led a military mutiny. A Nanchang uprising survivor, He Long, also created an army in his hometown, with former government soldiers as the main fighting force.
In the late 1920s, the Communist forces lacked resources and relied on guerilla tactics such as hit-and-run operations to compensate for their material limitations.
In late 1929, the Fourth Army organized the Gucheng Uprising and the establishment of Soviet administrations, peasant organizations, and militias.
Early success (early 1930s)
In early 1930, more red armies were created and the number of red soldiers grew rapidly. By the summer of 1930, the Chinese Red Army had grown to more than 100,000 soldiers and had several base areas, such as in southern and northern Jiangxi, western Hubei, and eastern Hunan, among others. Peng Dehuai's Fifth Army and Yang Youlin's 16th Red Army attacked and occupied Changsha, the capital of Hunan. After the attack, Jiangxi became the largest base area of the Chinese Red Army. In the autumn of 1930, Deng Xiaoping's Seventh Army left its base area in Guangxi.In 1931, the Chinese Red Army defeated the Nationalist forces three times with a large-scale attack, causing the Nationalist forces to lose nearly 100,000 soldiers. Several smaller red armies came together and formed a group army. In the summer of 1931, General Zhang Guotao arrived at the Fourth Red Army's base area and took over the army. Most of the Fourth Red Army's senior officers were killed by him, including Xu Jishen, Zhou Weijiong, and Xiaofang. Similar movements also occurred in western Hubei; in the spring of 1931, Xia Xi took over He Long's army and killed most of his senior officers including Duan Dechang.
In the fall of 1932, the Nationalist forces gathered 300,000 soldiers to attack the Fourth Red Army. Most of the Nationalist forces' future generals participated in this battle such as Huang Wei, Du Yuming, Sun Li-jen, and others. Having lost more than half of its soldiers, the Fourth Red Army was defeated and had to retreat from its base area. He Long's Third Army also sustained significant loses, with more than 10,000 soldiers losing their lives after leaving western Hubei. During this time, there were also several battles between the Nationalist forces and Jiangxi's First Red Army.
In the spring of 1933, the First Red Army defeated the Nationalist forces' fourth large-scale attack and eliminated two and a half of its elite divisions. Several of the Nationalist forces' generals were also captured. In 1933, the Fourth Red Army arrived at Sichuan and recruited more than 80,000 soldiers. This caused Sichuan's warlord Liu Xiang to gather 200,000 troops to attack the Fourth Red Army in autumn.
Defeats (mid 1930s)
In 1934, the Nationalist forces purchased new German weapons and launched a fifth large-scale attack on the Red Army's base area in Jiangxi. The First Red Army lost more than 50,000 soldiers in this battle and had to leave Jiangxi to establish a new base. This was the beginning of the Long March. About 30,000 soldiers were left to defend the base areas in southern China. During the same time, the Fourth Red Army defeated Liu Xiang's attacks, who lost more than 80,000 soldiers in battle. Before the First Red Army began the Long March, Xiao Ke's Sixth Legion arrived at eastern Guizhou and joined forces with He Long's Third Army. After this, the Third Army changed its designation to Second Legion.In the autumn of 1935, the First Red Army arrived in northern Shaanxi with only 6,000 soldiers after losing more than 80,000 along the way. During this same time, the Fourth Red Army moved to northern Sichuan and planned to attack Chengdu. By the end of 1935, they had lost more than 40,000 soldiers and were defeated. Therefore, they were forced to move to southern Gansu and wait for He Long's Second Legion and Sixth Legion to arrive.
Formation of a new Army (late 1930s)
In the summer of 1936, the Second Legion, the Sixth Legion and the Thirty-Second Army formed a new group army. It was named the Second Red Army and He Long was tasked with being its commander. The Second Red Army and Fourth Red Army arrived in north Shaanxi in the autumn of 1936. Around the same time, roughly 21,000 soldiers from the Fourth Red Army attacked Gansu, wanting to find a way to the Soviet Union. By the end of 1936, they were defeated by the Nationalist forces' General Ma Bufang, with more than 6,000 soldiers being captured. Only Xu Xiangqian and other senior officers survived. Because of this great failure, the Fourth Red Army's Commander in Chief Zhang Guotao was stripped of his military power.The Second Sino-Japanese War began on 7 July 1937 with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. As part of the United Front of the Communists and Nationalists against the invading Japanese forces, the Red Army was incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army, forming the Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army.
The First Red Army was integrated into the 115th Division of the Nationalist forces. The Second Red Army was integrated into the 120th Division of the Nationalist forces. The Fourth Red Army was integrated into the 129th Division of the Nationalist forces. These three divisions had 45,000 soldiers in all. 10,000 soldiers were left to defend the base areas in northern Shaanxi. In southern China, the New Fourth Army's 10,000 soldiers acted as a guerrilla force. At the time of the Second Sino-Japanese War, these two armies contained one million armed men.
The Red Army grew rapidly during the war, At the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Red Army had 2 million militia members and 900,000 regular troops.
Re-organization into People's Liberation Army
In 1947, the Red Army was reorganized into the People's Liberation Army. It continued to operate as a guerilla army reliant on the support of the peasantry. By the time the People's Republic of China was established on 1 October 1949, the PLA had 5.5 million personnel, primarily light infantry.After the Communist Party assumed power in 1949, veterans of the Red Army were venerated in mainland Chinese culture and are distinguished from those who joined to fight with the Communist Party after the integration with the Nationalists, or during the second civil war.
In 1954, the relationship between the Party and the military was further institutionalized by the establishment of the Central Military Commission.
Major events
- 1 August 1927: Nanchang Uprising
- 1927: Autumn Harvest Uprising
- 1927: Guangzhou Uprising
- 1930 to 1931: First Encirclement Campaign
- 1931: Second Encirclement Campaign
- July 1931: Third Encirclement Campaign
- 1932 to 1933: Fourth Encirclement Campaign
- 1933 to 1934: Fifth Encirclement Campaign
- 1934 to 1936: Long March
Political and ideological roles
In the view of the Communist Party, participation of the masses in the Red Army was significant beyond the direct concerns of manpower and material support. It was also viewed as a political process through which the masses would evolve into "masters of the state." According to Mao, "he Red Army is not an entity for fighting only. Its major task is to mobilize the masses. Fighting is only a means." This process involved the Red Army's significant responsibility for educating, organizing, and mobilizing the masses, functioning like the mobile embodiment of the Communist Party in addition to its military roles. Academic Cai Xiang writes that the Red Army's ability to function in this way helps explain why despite the weak industrial base in revolutionary China, a proletarian party nonetheless successfully developed.These ideas developed at the 1929 Gutian Congress The June 1930 Program for the Red Fourth Army at All Levels and the winter 1930 Provisional Regulations on the Political Work of the Chinese Workers and Peasants Army, which formally established Party leadership of the military.
In the article The Democratic Movement within the Army, written during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Mao Zedong discussed the Red Army's political work and stated, "Through the democratic movement under centralized leadership, we were able to achieve a high degree of political unity, improve lives, and improve military technology and tactics, which are our three main purposes." This view of democracy in the military emphasized democratic centralism and avoiding what the Party deemed "extreme democracy or anarchism."
Main leadership
Main leadership of the Red Army headquarters
In May 1933, the Chinese Red Army began to build a military regularization system. They established the Red Army headquarters on the front line to command operations.| Military Posts | First Term | Second Term | Third Term |
| Chairman of the Military Commission | Zhu De | Mao Zedong | |
| Commander in Chief | Zhu De | ||
| Chief Political Commissar | Zhou Enlai | Zhang Guotao | |
| Chief of the General Staff | Liu Bocheng | ||
| Deputy Chief of the General Staff | Zhang Yunyi | Ye Jianying | |
| Director of the General Political Department | Wang Jiaxiang | Cheng Changhao | Wang Jiaxiang |
| Deputy Director of the General Political Department | Yuan Guoping | Yang Shangkun | |
| Director of Security | Li Kenong | Luo Ruiqing | |
| Minister of Supply | Ye Jizhuang | ||
| Minister of Public Health | Peng Longbo | He Cheng | |
| Minister of Military Station |
Commanders of group armies
The Chinese Red Army often claimed they had three group armies, although, by 1931, the Second Red Army was much smaller than the other two.| Army | Military Posts | First Term | Second Term | Third Term |
| First Red Army | Commander | Zhu De | Peng Dehuai | |
| First Red Army | Political Commissar | Mao Zedong | Zhou Enlai | Mao Zedong |
| First Red Army | Chief of Staff | Ye Jianying | ||
| First Red Army | Director of Political Department | Yang Shangkun | Wang Jiaxiang | |
| Second Red Army | Commander | He Long | ||
| Second Red Army | Political Commissar | Ren Bishi | Guan Xiangying | |
| Second Red Army | Chief of Staff | Li Da | Zhou Shidi | |
| Second Red Army | Director of Political Department | Gan Siqi | Zhu Rui | |
| Fourth Red Army | Commander | Xu Xiangqian | ||
| Fourth Red Army | Political Commissar | Cheng Changhao | ||
| Fourth Red Army | Chief of Staff | Ni Zhiliang | Li Te | |
| Fourth Red Army | Director of Political Department | Liu Shiqi | Cheng Changhao | Li Zhuoran |
Main leadership of base areas
In 1930, the Chinese Red Army had established several base areas. Though the designations of the Red Army changed frequently, the main leadership of base areas did not change significantly.| Base Area | Duration | Main Leadership | Remarks |
| Jiangxi | 1929 - 1934 | Mao Zedong | |
| Jiangxi | 1929 - 1934 | Zhu De | |
| Jiangxi | 1929 - 1934 | Bo Gu | |
| Jiangxi | 1929 - 1934 | Zhou Enlai | |
| Northern Jiangxi | 1929 - 1934 | Betrayed in 1934 | |
| Northern Jiangxi | 1929 - 1934 | Fu Qiutao | |
| Northern Jiangxi | 1929 - 1934 | Fang Buzhou | Betrayed in 1937 |
| Eastern Jiangxi | 1929 - 1935 | Fang Zhimin | Died in 1935 |
| Eastern Jiangxi | 1929 - 1935 | ||
| Eastern Jiangxi | 1929 - 1935 | Shao Shiping | |
| Northern Fujian | 1929 - 1934 | Huang Dao | |
| Northern Fujian | 1929 - 1934 | Huang Ligui | Died in 1937 |
| Northern Fujian | 1929 - 1934 | Wu Xianxi | Died in 1937 |
| Western Jiangxi and Eastern Hunan | 1930 - 1934 | Ren Bishi | |
| Western Jiangxi and Eastern Hunan | 1930 - 1934 | Wang Zhen | |
| Western Jiangxi and Eastern Hunan | 1930 - 1934 | Xiao Ke | |
| Western Jiangxi and Eastern Hunan | 1930 - 1934 | Died in 1936 | |
| Western Anhui, Eastern Hubei, and Southern Henan | 1930 - 1932 | Zhang Guotao | |
| Western Anhui, Eastern Hubei, and Southern Henan | 1930 - 1932 | Xu Jishen | Died in 1931 |
| Western Anhui, Eastern Hubei, and Southern Henan | 1930 - 1932 | Xu Xiangqian | |
| Western Anhui, Eastern Hubei, and Southern Henan | 1930 - 1932 | Chen Changhao | |
| Western Anhui, Eastern Hubei, and Southern Henan | 1930 - 1932 | Shen Zemin | Died in 1933 |
| Western Hubei | 1930 - 1932 | He Long | |
| Western Hubei | 1930 - 1932 | Zhou Yiqun | Died in 1931 |
| Western Hubei | 1930 - 1932 | Guan Xiangying | |
| Western Hubei | 1930 - 1932 | Xia Xi | Died in 1936 |
| Northern Sichuan | 1933 - 1935 | Zhang Guotao | |
| Northern Sichuan | 1933 - 1935 | Xu Xiangqian | |
| Northern Sichuan | 1933 - 1935 | Chen Changhao | |
| Northern Sichuan | 1933 - 1935 | ||
| Northern Shaanxi | 1932 - 1937 | Liu Zhidan | Died in 1936 |
| Northern Shaanxi | 1932 - 1937 | Xie Zichang | Died in 1935 |
| Northern Shaanxi | 1932 - 1937 | Xi Zhongxun | |
| Eastern Guangdong | 1930 - 1931 | ||
| Guangxi | 1930 - 1932 | Deng Xiaoping | |
| Guangxi | 1930 - 1932 | Zhang Yunyi | |
| Guangxi | 1930 - 1932 | Died in 1931 | |
| Guangxi | 1930 - 1932 | Died in 1930 | |
| Guangxi | 1930 - 1932 | Wei Baqun | Died in 1932 |
| Hainan | 1930 - 1932 | Wang Wenming | Died in 1930 |
| Hainan | 1930 - 1932 | Feng Baiju |
Personnel
Military rebellion
In the early phases of its establishment, most of the Chinese Red Army's military officers were made up of former officers of the Nationalist forces, with most of them joining the Red Army secretly between 1925 and 1928. Many of these officers were killed in the first years of the war. The largest rebellion was the Ningdu Uprising which occurred in the winter of 1931. General, head of the 26th Route Army of the National Revolutionary Army and his 17,000 soldiers were the first to join the First Red Army. After the uprising, the Nationalist Party strengthened its control over the army, making launching a military rebellion more difficult. Despite this, General Zhang Guotao, who regarded the former officers of the Nationalist forces with disdain, lead an attack in the summer of 1931 which killed more than 2,500 of the Fourth Red Army's middle and senior officers who originated from the Nationalist forces.Ranks and titles
The Chinese Red Army had no ranks. Officers and soldiers were considered equal. Early on, the officers were elected by the soldiers; however, during the later parts of the war this system was eliminated. From regiment to army, the command system at each level had four commanders: commander, political commissar, chief of staff, and director of political department, with the political commissar holding the most power.Recruitment
Red Army recruitment efforts often involved mass meetings and competitions between different villages, counties, or mass organizations on the basis of which could supply the most recruits. Women's Organizations were mobilized to provided support to the dependents of Red Army soldiers and to prevent women from "pulling on tails" to forestall their enlistment.Coerced recruiting was explicitly forbidden.
Military education
As the number of former officers of the Nationalist forces that made up the Red Army decreased throughout the war, the Red Army began to develop military education for the new officers who were formerly farmers. Each base area established its own military academies, usually using captured enemy officers as teachers. The enterprise was very successful, and by 1936 most of the Red Army's military officers were former farmers.Purges
In 1931, commanders determined that there were a number of spies in the Red Army. This issue became particularly prevalent when the First Red Army's Chief of Staff Zhu Yunqing was assassinated by a spy in a hospital. After this, each Red Army began to judge and execute the officers and soldiers who were suspected. In 1931, the First Red Army executed about 4,000 men. The Fourth Red Army and Third Red Army also executed thousands of officers, especially senior officers.Militia
Typically a Red Army's base area was surrounded by enemy forces. To protect the base area from enemy attack, the Red Army recruited red guards. The red guards were commanded by officers of the local soviet. When large-scale war broke out, the red guards were responsible for the logistical support of the Red Army and supplied new soldiers for the Red Army. For example, in the winter of 1932, Xiao Ke's Eighth Army had 2,200 red soldiers and 10,000 red guards. The red guards' officers were not always loyal. In the spring of 1933, one of the red guards' officers killed 29th Army's commander Chen Qianlun and surrendered to the Nationalist forces.Organization
Usually each Chinese Red Army's army or legion had three or two infantry divisions. Each division has three infantry regiments and one mortar company. In different time the number of one division's soldiers is different. In the beginning every division had about 1000 or 2000 men. From 1933 to 1936, one division usually had about 5000 or 6000 men.1928
After several uprisings, the Chinese Red Army had several armies in the summer of 1928.| Province | Order of battle | Commander | Troop strength |
| Jiangxi | 4th Army | Zhu De | 6000 |
| Hunan | 5th Army | Peng Dehuai | 2000 |
| Hubei | 2nd Army | He Long | 1500 |
| Anhui | 11th Army | 300 |
1930
The Chinese Red Army became stronger than before and during the summer of 1930.| Province | Order of battle | Commander | Troop strength |
| Jiangxi | 4th Army | Lin Biao | 5000 |
| Jiangxi | 6th Army | 5000 | |
| Jiangxi | 10th Army | Fang Zhimin | 2000 |
| Jiangxi | 12th Army | Deng Yigang | 3000 |
| Jiangxi | 20th Army | Hu Shaohai | 1500 |
| Hunan | 5th Army | Peng Dehuai | 4000 |
| Hunan | 8th Army | He Changgong | 5000 |
| Hunan | 16th Army | Hu Yiming | 2000 |
| Hubei | 4th Army | He Long | 2000 |
| Hubei | 6th Army | Duan Dechang | 8000 |
| Anhui | 1st Army | Xu Jishen | 2100 |
| Zhejiang | 13th Army | 3000 | |
| Jiangsu | 14th Army | 700 | |
| Guangxi | 7th Army | Zhang Yunyi | 6000 |
| Guangxi | 8th Army | 1000 |
1932
In the summer of 1932, the Chinese Red Army had formed three main forces before the Fourth Encirclement Campaign.| Province | Order of battle | Commander | Troop strength |
| Jiangxi | 1st Legion | Lin Biao | 20000 |
| Jiangxi | 3rd Legion | Peng Dehuai | 18000 |
| Jiangxi | 5th Legion | 17000 | |
| Jiangxi | 12th Army | 7400 | |
| Jiangxi | 22nd Army | Xiao Ke | 2000 |
| Northern Jiangxi | 16th Army | Kong Hechong | 17000 |
| Eastern Hunan | 8th Army | Wang Zhen | 2200 |
| Eastern Hunan | 12th Division | 1200 | |
| Eastern Jiangxi | 10th Army | Zhou Jianping | 4000 |
| Western Hubei | 3rd Army | He Long | 14000 |
| Western Anhui and Eastern Hubei | 4th Army | Xu Xiangqian | 30000 |
| Western Anhui and Eastern Hubei | 25th Army | 12000 | |
| Western Anhui and Eastern Hubei | 1st Division | 3000 | |
| Northern Shaanxi | 42nd Division | Liu Zhidan | 200 |
| Guangxi | 21st Division | Wei Baqun | 1000 |
1934
The Chinese Red Army had nearly 200,000 men in the winter of 1934.| Province | Army | Order of battle | Commander | Troop strength |
| Jiangxi | First Red Army | 1st Legion | Lin Biao | 22400 |
| Jiangxi | First Red Army | 3rd Legion | Peng Dehuai | 19800 |
| Jiangxi | First Red Army | 5th Legion | 12000 | |
| Jiangxi | First Red Army | 8th Legion | 10900 | |
| Jiangxi | First Red Army | 9th Legion | 11500 | |
| Eastern Guizhou | Second Red Army | 2nd Legion | He Long | 4400 |
| Eastern Guizhou | Second Red Army | 6th Legion | Xiao Ke | 3300 |
| Sichuan | Fourth Red Army | 4th Army | Wang Hongkun | 20000 |
| Sichuan | Fourth Red Army | 9th Army | 18000 | |
| Sichuan | Fourth Red Army | 30th Army | 16000 | |
| Sichuan | Fourth Red Army | 31st Army | 16000 | |
| Sichuan | Fourth Red Army | 33rd Army | 10000 | |
| Fujian | 7nd Army | 7th Legion | 6000 | |
| Eastern Jiangxi | New 10th Army | New 10th Army | 4000 | |
| Northern Jiangxi | 16th Division | 47th regiment | 1500 | |
| Eastern Hubei | 25th Army | 25th Army | Xu Haidong | 3100 |
| Northern Shaanxi | 26th Army | 78th Division | Liu Zhidan | 2000 |
| Western Anhui | 28th Army | 82nd Division | 1000 |
1936
Most of Chinese Red Army had arrived in northern Shaanxi by autumn 1936. Only a minority of them stayed in southern China.| Province | Army | Order of battle | Commander | Troop strength |
| Northern Shaanxi | First Red Army | 1st Legion | Zuo Quan | 10000 |
| Northern Shaanxi | First Red Army | 15th Legion | Xu Haidong | 7000 |
| Northern Shaanxi | First Red Army | 28th Army | Song Shilun | 1500 |
| Northern Shaanxi | Second Red Army | 2nd Legion | He Long | 6000 |
| Northern Shaanxi | Second Red Army | 6th Legion | Xiao Ke | 5000 |
| Northern Shaanxi | Second Red Army | 32nd Army | 2000 | |
| Northern Shaanxi | Fourth Red Army | 4th Army | Chen Zaidao | 9000 |
| Northern Shaanxi | Fourth Red Army | 31st Army | Wang Shusheng | 7000 |
| Gansu | Western Route Army | 5th Army | 3000 | |
| Gansu | Western Route Army | 9th Army | 6500 | |
| Gansu | Western Route Army | 30th Army | Cheng Shicai | 7000 |
| Southern Shaanxi | 25th Army | 74th Division | Chen Xianrui | 1400 |
| Western Anhui and Eastern Hubei | 28th Army | 82nd Division | 2500 | |
| Northern Jiangxi | 16th Division | 47th regiment | Fang Buzhou | 1200 |
| Eastern Fujian | Eastern Fujian Military Command | Independent Division | Ye Fei | 1000 |
| Northern Fujian | Northern Fujian Military Command | Independent Division | Huang Ligui | 3000 |
| Southern Zhejiang | Southern Zhejiang Military Command | Independent Division | Su Yu | 1600 |